Clauses

What is a Clause?

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate (verb). It can function as a complete sentence or as part of a sentence.

Definitions of Clauses by Different Sources

Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar: A clause is a grammatical unit consisting of a subject and a verb, forming either a whole sentence or part of a sentence.

Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (Huddleston & Pullum, 2002): A clause is a syntactic construction containing a predicate and typically a subject, which functions as an independent sentence or a component of a larger structure.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary: A part of a sentence that has its own subject and verb.

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English: A group of words that includes a subject and a verb, and forms a sentence or part of a sentence.

A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (Quirk et al., 1985): A clause is a unit of grammatical organization next below the sentence in rank and in traditional grammar said to consist of a subject and a predicate.

Clauses are groups of words that contain both a subject and a verb. There are two main types of clauses: independent clauses and dependent clauses. Each of these has different subtypes and functions.

1. Independent Clause (Main Clause):

An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. It has a subject and a verb and does not rely on any other clause for meaning.

• Example: She loves reading books.
• She went to the market.
• He didn't come to the party.
• The sun is shining brightly.

2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause):

A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not express a complete thought. It needs an independent clause to make sense. Dependent clauses usually begin with subordinating conjunctions (e.g., because, although, if) or relative pronouns (e.g., who, which, that).

Example:

• Because she loves reading books.
• Because it was raining.
• When I arrive home.
• Although she was tired.
• That you gave me.
• As if he knows everything.

A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It depends on an independent clause to make sense. Dependent clauses can be classified into several types based on their function in a sentence:

1. Adjective Clause

An adjective clause (also called a relative clause) modifies or describes a noun or pronoun in the main clause. It typically starts with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that).

Examples:

• The girl who won the race is my cousin.
• I saw the book that you recommended.
• The man whom we met yesterday is a doctor.
• She wore a dress which was made of silk.
• Students whose grades are high will receive awards.

2. Adverbial Clause

An adverbial clause modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb in the main clause. It usually provides information about time, place, reason, condition, contrast, etc. These clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions like when, because, if, although, while, etc.

Examples:

• Time: I’ll call you when I arrive.
• Reason: She was happy because she passed the exam.
• Condition: If it rains, we will stay inside.
• Contrast: He is tall, although he is not athletic.

3. Noun Clause

A noun clause acts as a noun in a sentence. It can serve as a subject, object, or complement.

Examples:

• What she said surprised everyone.
  (Noun clause as subject of the sentence.)
• I don’t know where he went.
  (Noun clause as object of the verb 'know'.)
• The problem is that we don’t have enough time.
  (Noun clause as a subject complement.)
• Whether we’ll win the game depends on our teamwork.
  (Noun clause as subject.)
• She believes that honesty is important.
  (Noun clause as object of the verb 'believes'.)

Each type of dependent clause serves a specific function in adding more meaning to the sentence, whether modifying a noun, describing a verb, or acting as a noun itself.

**Restrictive** and **Non-restrictive** clauses are both types of relative clauses, but they serve different purposes and are punctuated differently.

### 1. **Restrictive Clauses**

A restrictive clause (also known as a defining clause) is essential to the meaning of the sentence. It provides necessary information to identify the noun it modifies. Without this clause, the sentence would lose its intended meaning.

- **No commas** are used with restrictive clauses.

**Example**:

• - The book **that I borrowed** was very interesting.
• - The clause "that I borrowed" restricts or defines which book is being referred to, so it is necessary for the meaning of the sentence.

### 2. **Non-Restrictive Clauses**

A non-restrictive clause (also known as a non-defining clause) adds extra information to the sentence. This information is not essential to the main idea of the sentence. The sentence would still make sense without the non-restrictive clause.

- **Commas** are used to set off non-restrictive clauses.

**Example**:

• - The book, **which I borrowed from the library**, was very interesting.
• - The clause "which I borrowed from the library" provides additional information, but the sentence still makes sense without it. The main idea is simply about the book being interesting.

### Key Differences:

• - **Restrictive clause**: No commas, essential to the meaning.
• - **Non-restrictive clause**: Commas are used, adds extra, non-essential information.

An **elliptical clause** is a type of clause in which some words are omitted, but the meaning remains clear from the context. The missing words can usually be inferred from the surrounding text. Elliptical clauses are often used to avoid repetition and make sentences more concise.

### **Types of Elliptical Clauses**

1. Elliptical Adverbial Clauses: These clauses omit part of the sentence because it is understood from the context.

- **Example**:

• - *She likes swimming more than I (like swimming).*
• - The part "like swimming" is understood and omitted, making the sentence shorter.

2. Elliptical Relative Clauses: These clauses omit the relative pronoun and the verb when they can be inferred from the sentence.

- **Example**:

• - *The book you gave me is great.*
• - Here, the elliptical clause would be "The book which you gave me," but "which" and the verb "gave" are omitted because they're understood.

3. Elliptical Comparative Clauses: These clauses omit words when comparing two things, typically omitting the verb or other elements that are clear from the comparison.

- **Example**:

• - *He runs faster than she (runs).*
• - "Runs" is omitted because it’s understood from the comparison.

### **How Elliptical Clauses Work**

Elliptical clauses remove unnecessary repetition, especially when the sentence can still make sense without the omitted parts.

### **Examples**:

- *I can play the guitar, and my brother (can play) the drums.*
("Can play" is omitted in the second part of the sentence, but it’s understood.)

- *She likes coffee more than I (like coffee).*
("Like coffee" is omitted, but the meaning is clear.)

**Nominal Relative Clauses** (also called *Free Relative Clauses*) are clauses that function as a noun in a sentence. They usually replace a noun or pronoun and often begin with a relative word such as *who, whoever, what, whatever, which, whichever, that, whichever, or whose*.

### Key Features of Nominal Relative Clauses:

• - They act as the subject, object, or complement of a sentence.
• - They do not have a specific noun or pronoun in the sentence to refer back to, unlike regular relative clauses.

### Structure:

Nominal relative clauses are introduced by a relative word such as:

• - **what** – meaning "the thing(s) that"
• - **whoever** – meaning "any person who"
• - **whatever** – meaning "any thing that"
• - **whichever** – meaning "any one thing from a specified set"
• - **who, whom, whose** – can still appear in certain contexts.

### Examples:

• 1. **What** I said is true.
  - (Here, *what I said* is the subject of the sentence.)
• 2. I don’t understand **whoever** did that.
  - (*Whoever did that* acts as the object of the sentence.)
• 3. She will choose **whichever** dress looks the best.
  - (*Whichever dress looks the best* is the object of "choose.")
• 4. **What** he told me shocked me.
  - (*What he told me* functions as the object of the verb "shocked.")

A clause is a group of words that contains both a subject and a verb. Clauses can be either independent or dependent.

1. Independent Clause (Main Clause): An independent clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence.

Examples:

• She went to the store.
• I love reading books.
• The sun is shining brightly.

2. Dependent Clause (Subordinate Clause): A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone. It needs an independent clause to form a complete sentence.

Examples:

• Because she was tired.
• Although it was raining.
• If I finish my work.

3. Combining Independent and Dependent Clauses: When combined, an independent clause and a dependent clause form a complex sentence.

Examples:

Independent + Dependent: I will go to the party if I finish my homework.

Dependent + Independent: Although it was raining, we went for a walk.

Clauses are essential components that help to create meaningful sentences. There are two main types of clauses: independent (main) and dependent (subordinate) clauses. Here are some tips to practice using clauses effectively:

### 1. **Understand the Types of Clauses**

- **Independent Clause**: A group of words that can stand alone as a complete sentence. It has a subject and a predicate. - **Example**: *She loves to read books.* - **Dependent Clause**: A group of words that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. It depends on an independent clause to give it meaning. - **Example**: *Because she loves to read books...* (This needs an independent clause to form a complete sentence).

### 2. **Know Common Subordinating Conjunctions** These are used to start dependent clauses and include words like: Because, although, if, when, while, before, after, until, unless.

- **Example**: *If you study hard, you will pass the test.*

### 3. **Practice Combining Sentences**

- Combine two independent clauses using coordinating conjunctions like *and, but, or, so, nor, for, yet*.

• - **Example**: *He wanted to go to the park, but it started raining.*

- Combine an independent clause and a dependent clause using subordinating conjunctions.

• - **Example**: *She didn’t attend the meeting because she was sick.*

### 4. **Use Relative Clauses for More Detail** Relative clauses provide additional information about a noun in the main clause.

• - **Example**: *The book that I borrowed was fascinating.*

- The word *that* introduces the relative clause.

### 5. **Practice with Complex Sentences** A **complex sentence** contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.

• - **Example**: *Although it was raining, she went for a run.*

### 6. **Avoid Sentence Fragments** A **sentence fragment** occurs when a dependent clause is mistakenly written as a complete sentence.

• Incorrect: *Because she was tired.*
• Correct: *She went to bed early because she was tired.*

### 7. **Use Coordinating and Subordinating Conjunctions Effectively**

• - **Coordinating conjunctions** link equal elements (independent clauses).
• - **Subordinating conjunctions** link dependent and independent clauses.

### 8. **Punctuation with Clauses**

- **Independent + Independent**: Separate with a comma when the independent clause comes first.

• - *Example*: *I wanted to go to the beach, but it was too cold.*

- **Dependent + Independent**: No comma if the dependent clause comes after the independent clause.

• - *Example*: *I went inside because it started to rain.*

- **Dependent + Independent**: Use a comma if the dependent clause comes first.

• - *Example*: *Because it started to rain, I went inside.*

### 9. **Focus on Sentence Variety**

Mix simple, compound, and complex sentences to avoid monotony and improve your writing flow.

### 10. **Daily Practice**

Write sentences using different combinations of clauses. Over time, you'll become more comfortable with how clauses function within a sentence.